and Makuria is unclear, but it was somewhere between the 5th and 6th Cataracts]] Makuria (Arabic: al-Mukurra or al-Muqurra) was a kingdom located in what is today Southern Egypt and Northern Sudan. It was one of a group of Nubian kingdoms that emerged in the centuries after the fall of the Kindgom of Meroë, which had dominated the region from around 800 BC to AD 350. Makuria originally covered the area along the Nile River from the Third Cataract to somewhere between the Fifth and Sixth Cataracts. It also had control over the trade routes, mines, and oases to the east and west. Its capital was Dongola (or Dunqulah), and the kingdom is sometimes known by the name of its capital. By the end of the 6th century it had converted to Christianity, but in the 7th century Egypt was conquered by the Islamic armies, and Nubia was cut off from the rest of Christendom. In 651 an Arab army invaded, but it was repulsed and a treaty known as the baqt was signed creating a relative peace between the two sides that lasted until the 13th century. Makuria expanded, annexing its northern neighbour Nobatia either at the time of the Arab invasion or during the reign of King Merkurios. The period from roughly 750 to 1150 saw the kingdom stable and prosperous, in what has been called the "Golden Age". However, increased aggression from Egypt, the Islamicization and Arabization of the populace, and internal discord saw the state collapse in the 14th century.

Sources

14th century–10th century, found at Qasr Ibrim, now housed in the British Museum. The name of Michael appears in red.]] Makuria is by far the best-known kingdom of Christian Nubia, but there are still many gaps in our knowledge. The most important source for the history of the area is various Arab travelers and historians who passed through Nubia during this period. The accounts are often problematic as many of the Arab writers were biased against their Christian neighbours, and these works generally focus on only the military conflicts between Egypt and Nubia. One exception is Ibn Selim el-Aswani, an Egyptian diplomat who traveled to Dongola when Makuria was at the height of its power in the 10th century, and left a detailed account. The Nubians were a literate society, and a fair body of writing survives from the period. These documents were written in the Old Nubian language in an uncial variety of the Greek alphabet extended with some Coptic symbols and some symbols unique to Nubian. Written in a language that is closely related to the modern Nobiin tongue, these documents have long been deciphered. However, the vast majority of them are works dealing with religion or legal records that are of little use to historians. The largest known collection, found at Qasr Ibrim, does contain some valuable governmental records. In recent decades archaeology has become the best method of obtaining information regarding Makuria. The construction of the Aswan High Dam in 1964 promised to flood what had once been the northern half of Makuria. In 1960 UNESCO launched a massive effort to do as much archaeological work as possible before the flooding occurred. Thousands of experts were brought from around the world over the next few years. Some of more important Makurian sites looked at were the city of Faras and its cathedral, excavated by a team from Poland; the British work at Qasr Ibrim; and the University of Ghana's work at the town of Debeira West, which gave important information on daily life in Medieval Nubia. All of these sites are in what was Nobatia, the only major archaeological site in Makuria itself is the partial exploration of the capital at Old Dongola.

History

Origins

The origins of Makuria are uncertain. Ptolemy mentions a Nubian people known as the Makkourae, who might be ancestors to the Makurians. The kingdom is believed to have formed in the 4th or 5th century. The first recorded mention of it is in a work by the 6th-century John of Ephesus, who decries its hostility to Monophysite missionaries traveling to Alodia. Soon after John of Biclarum wrote approvingly of Makuria's adoption of the rival Melkite faith. The most important event in Makurian history was the defeat of an Arab army in 652. The Arabs had taken Egypt in 641, and the jihad soon turned south. At the Battle of Dongola in 652 the Arabs were either defeated or stalemated by the Nubians. It is unclear how the Nubians achieved this feat, but Arab writers noted their skill with the bow. This was the only major defeat suffered by an Arab army in the first century of Islamic expansion, and it led to an unprecedented agreement, the bakt, which guaranteed peaceful relations between the two sides. In this treaty the Nubians agreed to send several hundred slaves each year to Egypt, while the Egyptians may have been obliged to send food and manufactured goods south. At some point Makuria merged with Nobatia to the north. The evidence for when this occurred is contradictory. The Arab accounts of the invasion of 652 only make reference to a single state based at Dongola. The bakt, negotiated by the Makurian king, applied to all of Nubia north of Alodia. This has led some scholars to propose that the two kingdoms were unified during this turbulent period. However, a book written in 690 makes clear that Makuria and Nobatia were still two separate and rather hostile kingdoms. Clear evidence for union is provided by an inscription from the reign of King Merkurios at Taifa that makes clear that Nobatia was under Makurian control by the middle of the eighth century. Every source after this date has Nobatia under Makurian control. This leads many scholars to infer that the unification occurred during the reign of Merkurios, who was described as the "New Constantine" by John the Deacon. What this merged kingdom should be called is unclear in both contemporary sources and among modern historians. Makuria remained in use as a geographic term for the southern half of the kingdom, but it was also used to describe the kingdom in its entirety. Some writers refer to it simply as Nubia, ignoring that southern Nubia was still under the independent kingdom of Alodia. It is also sometimes called the Kingdom of Dongola, after the capital city. Another name, the Kingdom of Makuria and Nobatia, perhaps implies a dual monarchy. Dotawo could be another name, or it could refer to an entirely separate kingdom.

Height

Makuria seems to have been stable and prosperous during the eighth and ninth centuries. During this period Egypt was weakened by frequent civil wars, and there was thus little threat of invasion from the north. Instead it was the Nubians who intervened in the affairs of their neighbour. Much of Upper Egypt was still Christian, and it looked to the Nubian kingdoms for protection. One report has a Nubian army sacking Cairo in the eighth century to defend the Christians, but this is probably apocryphal. Not a great deal is known about Makuria during this period. One important story is that of Zacharias III sending his son Georgios to Baghdad to negotiate a reduction of the bakt. Georgios as king also plays a prominent role in the story of Arab adventurer al-Umari. The best evidence from this time is archaeological. Excavations show that this era was one of stability and seeming prosperity. Nubian pottery, painting, and architecture all reached their heights during this era. It also seems to have been a long period of stability in the Nile floods, without the famine caused by small floods or the destruction caused by large ones. Egypt and Makuria developed close and peaceful relations when Egypt was ruled by the Fatimids. The Shi'ite Fatimids had few allies in the Muslim world, and they turned to the southern Christians as allies. Fatimid power also depended upon the black slaves provided by Makuria, who were used to man the Fatimid army. Trade between the two states flourished: Egypt sent wheat, wine, and linen south while Makuria exported ivory, cattle, ostrich feathers, and slaves. Relations with Egypt soured when the Ayyubids came to power in 1171. Early in the Ayyubid period the Nubians invaded Egypt, perhaps in support of their Fatimid allies. The Ayyubids repulsed their invasion and in response Salah-ed-din dispatched his brother Turan Shah to invade Nubia. He defeated the Nubians, and for several years occupied Qasr Ibrim before retreating north. The Ayyubids dispatched an emissary to Makuria to see if it was worth conquering, but he reported that the land was too poor. The Ayyubids seem to have thus largely ignored their southern neighbour for the next century.

Decline

There are no records from travelers to Makuria from 1171 to 1272, and the events of this period have long been a mystery, although modern discoveries have shed some light on this era. During this period Makuria seems to have entered a steep decline. The best source on this is Ibn Khaldun, writing several decades later, who blamed it on Bedouin invasions and Nubian intermarriage with Arabs. The Ayyubids dealt very aggressively with the Bedouin tribes of the nearby deserts, forcing them south into conflict with the Nubians. Archaeology gives clear evidence of increasing instability in Makuria. Once unfortified cities gained city walls, the people retreated to better defended positions, such as the cliff tops at Qasr Ibrim. Houses throughout the region were built far sturdier, with secret hiding places for food and other valuables. Archaeology also shows increased signs of Arabization and Islamicization. Free trade between the kingdoms was part of the bakt, and over time Arab merchants became prominent in Dongola and other cities. Eventually the northern area, most of what was once Nobatia, had become largely Arabized and Islamicized. Largely independent of Dongola it was increasingly referred to as al-Maris. While the desert tribes may have been the most important destructive force, the campaigns of the Egyptian Mamlukes are far better documented. An important component of the bakt was the promise that Makuria would secure Egypt's southern border against raids by desert nomads, like the Beja. The Makurian state could no longer do this, prompting interventions by Egyptian armies that further weakened it. In 1272 the Mamluk Sultan Baybars invaded, after King David I had attacked the Egyptian city of Aidhab, initiating several decades of intervention by the Mamlukes in Nubian affairs. Internal difficulties seem to have also hurt the kingdom. David's cousin Shekanda claimed the throne and traveled to Cairo to seek the support of the Mamelukes. They agreed and invaded Nubia in 1276, and placed Shekanda on the throne. The Christian Shekanda then signed an agreement making Makuria a vassal of Egypt, and a Mamluke garrison was stationed in Dongola. After only a few years of occupation Shamamun, another member of the Makurian royal family, led a rebellion that eventually defeated the Mamluk garrison. He offered the Egyptians an increase in the annual bakt payments in return for scrapping the obligations to which Shekanda had agreed. The Mamluke armies were occupied elsewhere, and the Sultan of Egypt agreed to this new arrangement. After a period of peace King Karanbas defaulted on these payments, and the Egyptians again invaded. This time a Muslim member of the Makurian dynasty was placed on the throne. Sayf al-Din Abdullah Barshambu began converting the nation the Islam and in 1317 the Dongola cathedral was turned into a mosque. This was not accepted by other Makurian leaders and the nation fell into civil war and anarchy. The countryside came under the control of the raiding tribes from the desert, and the monarchy was left with effective control over little more than the capital. The last known evidence of the Makurian dynasty is a call for aid in 1397. In 1412, the Awlad Kenz took control of Nubia and part of Egypt above the Thebaid, and remained the de facto rulers until 1517, when the area was conquered and amalgamated into Egypt by the armies of the Ottoman Sultan Selim.

Economy

The main economic activity in Makuria was agriculture, with farmers growing several crops a year of barley, millet, and dates. The methods used were generally the same that had been used for millennia. Small plots of well irrigated land were lined along the banks of the Nile, which would be fertilized by the river's annual flooding. One important technological advance was the saqiya, an oxen-powered water wheel, that was introduced in the Roman period and helped increase yields and population density. Settlement patterns indicate that land was divided into individual plots rather than as in a manorial system. The peasants lived in small villages composed of clustered houses of sun-dried brick. Important industries included the production of pottery, based at Faras, and weaving based at Dongola. Smaller local industries include leatherworking, metalworking, and the widespread production of baskets, mats, and sandals from palm fibre. Also important was the gold mined in the Red Sea Hills to the east of Makuria. Makurian trade was largely by barter as the state never adopted a currency. In the north, however, Egyptian coins were common. Makurian trade with Egypt was of great import. From Egypt a wide array of luxury and manufactured goods were imported. The main Makurian export was slaves. The slaves sent north were not from Makuria itself, but rather from further south and west in Africa. Little is known about Makurian trade and relations with other parts of Africa. There is some archaeological evidence of contacts and trade with the areas to the west such as Darfur and Kanem-Bornu, but few details. There seem to have been important political relations between Makuria and Christian Ethiopia to the south-east. For instance, in the 10th century, Georgios II successfully intervened on behalf of the unnamed ruler at that time, and persuaded Patriarch Philotheos of Alexandria to at last ordain an abuna, or metropolitan, for the Ethiopian Orthodox Church. However, there is little evidence of much trade between the two Christian states.

Government

Makuria was a monarchy ruled by a king based in Dongola. The king was also considered a priest and could perform mass. How succession was decided is not clear. Early writers indicate it was from father to son. After the eleventh century, however, it seems clear that Makuria was using the uncle-to-sister's-son system favoured for millennia in Kush. Shinnie speculates that the later form may have actually been used throughout, and that the early Arab writers merely misunderstood the situation and incorrectly described Makurian succession as similar to what they were used to. Little is known about government below the king. A wide array of officials, generally using Byzantine titles, are mentioned, but their roles are never explained. One figure who is well-known, thanks to the documents found at Qasr Ibrim, is the Eparch of Nobatia, who seems to have been the viceroy in that region after it was annexed to Makuria. The Eparch's records make clear that he was also responsible for trade and diplomacy with the Egyptians. Early records make it seem like the Eparch was appointed by the king, but later ones indicate that the position had become hereditary. This office would eventually become that of the "Lord of the Horses" ruling the autonomous and then Egyptian-controlled al-Maris. The bishops might have played a role in the governance of the state. Ibn Selim el-Aswani noted that before the king responded to his mission he met with a council of bishops. El-Aswani described a highly centralized state, but other writers state that Makuria was a federation of thirteen kingdoms presided over by the great king at Dongola. It is unclear what the reality was, but the Kingdom of Dotawo, prominently mentioned in the Qasr Ibrim documents, might be one of these sub-kingdoms.

Religion

One of the most debated issues among scholars is over the religion of Makuria. Up to the fifth century the old faith of Meroe seems to have remained strong, even while its counterpart in Egypt disappeared. In the fifth century the Nubians went so far as to launch an invasion of Egypt, during which the Christians tried to turn some of the main temples into churches. Archaeological evidence in this period finds a number of Christian ornaments in Nubia, and some scholars feel that this implies that conversion from below was already taking place. Others argue that it is more likely that these reflected the faith of the manufacturers in Egypt rather than the buyers in Nubia. Certain conversion came with a series of sixth-century missions. The Byzantine Empire dispatched an official party to try to convert the kingdoms to Chalcedonian Christianity, but Empress Theodora reportedly conspired to delay the party to allow a group of Monophysites to arrive first. John of Ephesus reports that the Monophysites successfully converted the kingdoms of Nobatia and Alodia, but that Makuria remained hostile. John of Biclarum states that Makuria then embraced the rival Byzantine Christianity. Archaeological evidence seems to point to a rapid conversion brought about by an official adoption of the new faith. Millennia-old traditions such as the building of elaborate tombs, and the burying of expensive grave goods with the dead were abandoned, and temples throughout the region seem to have been converted to churches. Churches eventually were built in virtually every town and village. After this point the exact course of Makurian Christianity is much disputed. It is clear that by the seventh century Makuria had become officially Coptic and loyal to the Coptic Patriarch of Alexandria; the king of Makuria became the defender of the patriarch of Alexandria, occasionally intervening militarily to protect him, as Kyriakos did in 722. This same period saw Melkite Makuria absorb the Coptic Nobatia, and historians have long wondered why the conquering state adopted the religion of its rival. It is fairly clear that Egyptian Coptic influence was far stronger in the region, and that Byzantine power was fading, and this might have played a role. Historians are also divided on whether this was the end of the Melkite/Coptic split as there is some evidence that a Melkite minority persisted until the end of the kingdom. The Makurian church was divided into seven bishoprics: Kalabsha, Qupta, Qasr Ibrim, Faras, Sai, Dongola, and Suenkur. Unlike Ethiopia, it appears that no national church was established and all seven bishops reported directly to the Coptic Patriarch of Alexandria. The bishops were appointed by the Patriarch, not the king, though they seem to have largely been local Nubians rather than Egyptians. Unlike in Egypt, there is not much evidence for monasticism in Makuria. According to Adams there are only three archaeological sites that are certainly monastic. All three are fairly small and quite Coptic, leading to the possibility that they were set up by Egyptian refugees rather than indigenous Makurians. The end of Christianity in Makuria is unclear, but we are offered a glimpse of the problems it faced from the account of the traveler Francisco Alvarez, who witnessed, while at the court of Emperor Lebna Dengel in the 1520s, an embassy from the Nubian Christians, who came to him asking for priests, bishops, and other personnel desperately needed to keep Christianity alive in their land. Lebna Dengel declined to help, stating that he received his bishop from the patriarch of Alexandria, and that they too should go to him for help.

Culture

Lebna Dengel 3 of the three youths thrown into the furnace.]] Christian Nubia was long considered something of a backwater, mainly because its graves were small and lacking the grave goods of previous eras. Modern scholars realize that this was due to cultural reasons, and that the Makurians actually had a rich and vibrant art and culture. One of the most important discoveries of the rushed work prior to the flooding of Lower Nubia was the Cathedral of Faras. This large building had been completely filled with sand preserving a series of magnificent paintings. Similar, but less well preserved, paintings have been found at several other sites in Makuria, including palaces and private homes, giving an overall impression of Makurian art. The style and content was heavily influenced by Byzantine art, and also showed influence from Egyptian Coptic art and from Palestine. Mainly religious in nature, it depicts many of the standard Christian scenes. Also illustrated are a number of Makurian kings and bishops, with noticeably darker skin than the Biblical figures. Nubian pottery in this period is also notable. Shinnie refers to it as the "richest indigenous pottery tradition on the African continent." Scholars divide the pottery into three eras. The early period, from 550 to 650 according to Adams, or to 750 according to Shinnie, saw fairly simple pottery similar to that of the late Roman Empire. It also saw much of Nubian pottery imported from Egypt rather than produced domestically. Adams feels this trade ended with the invasion of 652; Shinnie links it to the collapse of Umayyad rule in 750. After this domestic production increased, with a major production facility at Faras. In this middle era, which lasted until around 1100, the pottery was painted with floral and zoomorphic scenes and showed distinct Umayyad and even Sassanian influences. The late period during Makuria's decline saw domestic production again fall in favour of imports from Egypt. Pottery produced in Makuria became less ornate, but better control of firing temperatures allowed different colours of clay. There were a number of different languages in use in Makuria. In early centuries, when Byzantine influence was still strong, Greek was the primary written language and perhaps also the language used by the royal court. Greek continued to be used in later centuries for ceremonial purposes, such as on many gravestones, but these later inscriptions are marked by frequent spelling and grammar errors implying reduced knowledge of the language. Eventually Old Nubian, which was the language used by most of the population, became the main written language; Old Nubian translations of the bible and many other religious documents were used widely. One Arab traveler to the region stated that Nobatia and Makuria spoke different languages; almost all our documents are from what was Nobatia and this language seems ancestral to the modern Nobiin language still spoken in the region. Adams notes that the ancient border between Makuria and Nobatia today is close to the border between the Nobiin and Dongolawi languages. Another important language in Makuria was Coptic. Links with Egyptian Christians were strong and Makuria seems to have made wide use of Coptic religious literature. Makuria also saw regular influxes of Coptic-speaking Christian refugees from Egypt. In the later years of the kingdom's existence, Arabic became an increasingly important tongue. Arab traders were important throughout the area and Arabic seems to have become the language of commerce. As these traders settled, each major community gained an Arab quarter.

Rulers

Note that dates are quite uncertain for most Makurian rulers.
- Merkurios (c. 697–c. 722)
- Kyriakos (c. 722–?)
- Zacharias I (?–c. 744)
- Simon (c. 744–?)
- Markos
- Abraham
- Mikael (c. 790)
- Johannes
- Zacharias III (c. 822–c. 854)
- Ali Baba (c. 854)
- Israel
- Georgios I (c. 872–c. 892)
- Asabyos (c. 892)
- Istabanos
- Kubri (c. 943)
- Zacharias IV
- Georgios II (c. 969)
- Simeon
- Rafael (c. 1002)
- Georgios III (?–1080)
- Salomo (1080–89)
- Basileios (1089–30)
- Georgios IV (1130–71)
- Moise (1171–1210)
- Yahya (1210–68)
- David I (1268–74)
- David II (1274–76)
- Shakanda (1276–12?)
- Masqadat (?–1279)
- Barak (1279–1286)
- Samamun (1286–93)
- Amai (1304–5)
- Kudanbes (1305–24)

Notes

# K. Michalowski, "The Spreading of Christianity in Nubia," p. 338 # P.L. & M. Shinnie, "New Light on Medieval Nubia." # William Y. Adams Nubia: Corridor to Africa p. 257 # Wlodzimierz Godlewski. "The Birth of Nubian Art." # Adams Corridor to Africa p. 442 # Jay Sapulding. "Medieval Christian Nubia and the Islamic World: A Reconsideration of the Baqt Treaty," International Journal of African Historical Studies XXVIII, 3 (1995). # See William Y. Adams "The United Kingdom of Makouria and Nobadia: A Medieval Nubian Anomaly" for a full discussion of this issue. # P.L. Shinnie Ancient Nubia p. 124. # Adams "The United Kingdom" p. 257. # Adams Corridor to Africa p. 456 # L. Kropacek, "Nubia from the late twelfth century to the Funj conquest in the early fifteenth century," p. 399 # ibid p. 401 # P.L. Shinnie, "Christian Nubia." g. 556 # S. Jakobielski "Christian Nubia at the Height of its Civilization," pg. 207 # Shinnie, "New Light" # In fact, the Nubian trade in slaves from the southern Sudan centuries later was still viable according to Burckhardt's (1819) Travels in Nubia. # Jakobielski p. 207 # Shinnie, "Christian Nubia." p. 581 # ibid. p. 581 # Adams "The United Kingdom" p. 258 # Jakobielski p. 211 # Louis V. Zabkar, "The Eparch of Nobatia as King," Journal of Near Eastern Studies. 1963. # Adams "The United Kingdom" p. 259 # Adams Corridor to Africa p. 440 # Adams Corridor to Africa p. 441 # Shinnie, "New Light" # Shinnie, "Christian Nubia." p. 583 # Adams Corridor to Africa p. 472 # Adams Corridor to Africa p. 478 # C.F. Beckingham and G.W.B. Huntingford, The Prester John of the Indies (Cambridge: Hakluyt Society, 1961), pp. 460-462. # Adams Corridor to Africa p. 495 # Wlodzimierz Godlewski. "The Birth of Nubian Art." p. 255 # ibid p. 256 # Shinnie, "New Light" # Shinnie, "Christian Nubia." p. 570

References

- Adams, William Y. Nubia: Corridor to Africa. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1977.
- Adams, William Y. "The United Kingdom of Makouria and Nobadia: A Medieval Nubian Anomaly." Egypt and Africa: Nubia from Prehistory to Islam edited by W.V. Davies. London: British Museum Press, 1991.
- E.A. Wallis Budge. A History of Ethiopia: Nubia and Abyssinia, 1928. Oosterhout, the Netherlands: Anthropological Publications, 1970.
- Godlewski, Wlodzimierz. "The Birth of Nubian Art: Some Remarks." Egypt and Africa: Nubia from Prehistory to Islam edited by W.V. Davies. London: British Museum Press, 1991.
- Jakobielski, S. "Christian Nubia at the Height of its Civilization." UNESCO General History of Africa, Volume III.
- Kropacek, L. "Nubia from the late twelfth century to the Funj conquest in the early fifteenth century", UNESCO General History of Africa, Volume IV.
- Michalowski, K. "The Spreading of Christianity in Nubia." UNESCO General History of Africa, Volume II.
- Shinnie, P.L. Ancient Nubia London: Kegan Paul, 1996
- Shinnie, P.L. "Christian Nubia." The Cambridge History of Africa: Volume 2, From c. 500 BC to AD 1050. editor J. D. Fage. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1979.
- Shinnie, P.L. & M. "New Light on Medieval Nubia." Journal of African History. VI, 3. 1965.

External links

- [http://lexicorient.com/e.o/sudan_5.htm History of Sudan at Encyclopedia of the Orient] Category:Historical African monarchies Category:Nubia

Sa'id I ibn Idris

Sa'id I ibn Idris (760-803), emir of Nekor. He moved the capital from Temsaman to Nekor. The City was later was sacked by the Normans, who took many prisoners, a few of whom were ransomed by the Umayyad ruler of Spain. Later, part of the Ghomara tribe revolted, led by a person called Segguen; their revolt was defeated. Category:History of Morocco Category:Rif

760

Events

- Maya civilization city of Dos Pilas is abandoned.
- The church of Santa Sophia in Benevento is built (approximate date)

Births

- Theodulf, bishop of Orléans (approximate date) (d. 821) Category:760 ko:760년

803

Events

- Nicephorus I and Charlemagne settle their imperial boundaries.
- Venice recognized as independent by Byzantine Empire.

Births

- Du Mu, Chinese poet (d. 852)

Deaths

- June 24 - Higbald of Lindisfarne
- August 9 - Byzantine Empress Irene Category:803 ko:803년

Copán

The Pre-Columbian city now known as Copán is a locale in extreme western Honduras, in the Copán Department, near to the Guatemalan border. It is the site of a major Maya kingdom of the Classic era. The kingdom, anciently named Xukpi (Corner-Bundle), flourished from the 5th century AD to the early 9th century, with antecedents going back to at least the 2nd century AD. Its name is an apparent reference to the fact that it was situated at the far southern and eastern end of Maya territory. The nearby modern village of Copán Ruinas itself may have anciently been known as Oxwitik.

Description of the ruins

2nd century The site in Copan is perhaps best known for producing a remarkable series of portrait stelae, most of which were placed along processional ways in the central plaza of the city and the adjoining "acropolis" (a large complex of overlapping step-pyramids, plazas, and palaces). The stelae and sculptured decorations of the buildings of Copán are some of the very finest surviving art of ancient Mesoamerica. Many structures are elaborately decorated with stone sculptures, usually constructed from a mosaic of carved stones of a size that one person could carry. Mesoamerica The site also has a large court for playing the Mesoamerican ballgame. At its height in the late classic period Copán seems to have had an unusually prosperous class of minor nobility, scribes, and artisans, some of whom had homes of cut stone built for themselves (in most sites a privilege reserved for the rulers and high priests), some of which have carved hieroglyphic texts. Mesoamerican ballgame The buildings suffered significantly from forces of nature in the centuries between the site's abandonment and the rediscovery of the ruins. There have been numerous earthquakes -- no roofs of the stone buildings intact when the site was rediscovered, and the hieroglyphic stairway was collapsed. The Copán river changed course and meandered, destroying part of the acropolis (revealing in the process its stratigraphy in a large vertical cut) and apparently wiping out various subsidiary architectural groups in the region. In the long period when the site was overgrown the buildings and scuptures suffered from the invasive thick jungle vegetation and periodic forest fires. Archeologists have consolidated and restored many structures at the site.

Pre-Columbian history

earthquake The fertile Copán River valley was long a site of agriculture before the first known stone architecture was built in the region about the 9th century BC. A kingdom seems to have been established in Copán in 159. It grew into one of the most important Maya sites by the 5th century. Large monuments dated with hieroglyhic texts were erected in the city from 435 through 822. Xukpi was one of the more powerful Maya city states, a regional power, although it suffered a catastrophic defeat at the hands of the kingdom located at Quirigua in 738. It eventually withered in the face of the depletion of natural resources which was a factor in bringing most of the Classic-Age Maya city-states to their end. The area continued to be occupied after the last major ceremonial structures and royal monuments were erected, but the population declined in the 8th century - 9th century from perhaps over 20,000 in the city to less than 5,000. The ceremonial center was long abandoned and the surrounding valley home to only a few farming hamlets at the time of the arrival of the Spanish in the 16th century.

List of known Xukpi rulers

16th century
- K'inich Yax K'uk' Mo' before 426-437
- K'inich Popol Hol c. 437
- 1 King, name unknown c. 455
- Cu Ix c. 465
- 2 Kings, names unknown, 476, 485
- Waterlily-Jaguar after 504-544
- 2 Kings, names unknown; last one died 553
- "Moon Jaguar" 553-578
- Butz' Chan 578-628
- Smoke Imix K'awiil 628-695
- Uaxaclajuun Ub'aah K'awiil ("18 Rabbit") 695-738
- K'ac Joplaj Chan K'awiil ("Smoke Monkey") 738-749
- K'ac Yipyaj Chan K'awiil ("Smoke Shell"; "Smoke Squirrel") 749-763
- Yax-Pasaj Chan Yoaat ("Yax Pac") 763-after 810
- (probably period where throne was vacant)
- U-Cit-Tok 822
- Royal ceremonial center of city abandoned by 827 The first sixteen names, from Yax K'uk' Mo' to Yax Pac, are depicted on Altar Q, an artifact that has provided researchers clues to the history and origins of Copán.

Copán in modern times

Altar Q By the time of the Spanish conquest of Honduras, the site had long been overgrown by rainforest. Although this large ruined city was known locally since early colonial times, it remained largely unknown by the outside world until a series of explorers visited it in the early 19th century. Juan Galindo wrote a description of the ruins in 1834, which was published the following year. This sparked the interest of North American explorer and travel writer John Lloyd Stephens and English architect and draftsman Frederick Catherwood whose illustrated books describing Copán and other sites excited a great deal of interest in Mesoamerican antiquities among American and European scholars, and its publication is regarded as the commencement of modern Mayan studies which continue to this day. The site was the subject of one of the first modern archeological surveys and excavations in the Maya area, conducted by the Peabody Museum of Archaeology and Ethnology of Harvard University from 1891 to 1900. Further excavations and restorations were begun by the Carnegie Institution of Washington in the 1930s, the Peabody Museum again in the 1970s, followed by the Government of Honduras's Proyecto Copán beginning in the late 1970s and continuing to this day. See also:
- Maya civilization

External links

- [http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/maya/ "Lost King of the Maya" site on pbs.org] companion site to "Nova" television documentary on Copán
- [http://www.peabody.harvard.edu/Copan/text.html Hieroglyphs and History at Copán] by David Stuart on peabody.harvard.edu Category:Cities in Honduras Category:World Heritage Sites in Honduras Category:Maya sites

810

Events

- October 1 - A man with a sword makes an attempt on emperor Nicephorus I's life. In the following trial, the assassin claims insanity as his defense.
- Temple of the Jaguar Priest constructed in Tikal National Park, Guatemala.
- The Book of Kells is completed by the Celts.
- China demands return of territory by Tibet.
- Bulgars, under king Krum, destroy the Avars.

Births

- Bukhari, Persian scholar
- Emperor Nimmyo, Emperor of Japan (d. 850)

Deaths

- July 8 - King Pippin of Italy (b. 773) Category:810 ko:810년

Bohai

:Alternate meaning: Bohai Sea Bohai (Chinese) or Balhae (Korean) was a kingdom in northeast Asia from AD 698 to 926, occupying parts of Manchuria, northern Korea and the Russian Far East. Bohai was founded by Dae Jo young, the leader of Goguryeo remnants. At founding, it was called the state of Jin (振國), but renamed in 713. It was conquered by the Khitan in 926. In the confusion of the Khitan attack against the Tang in 696, Goguryeo remnants, led by Geolgeol Jung sang and Sumo Mohe tribe, led by Qisi Piyu escaped eastward to their homeland. The two leaders died but Dae Jo young, the son of Geolgeol Jung sang, established the State of Jin. Dae Jo young established his capital at Dongmu Mountain in the south of today's Jilin province. Since it gained power under protection of the northern nomadic empire of Gokturk, Tang gave Dae Jo young the title of "Prefecture King of Bohai" in 713. Bohai had been a Chinese prefecture, but since then referred to the kingdom. The title was upgraded to "State King of Bohai" in 762. The second king Mu , who felt encircled by Tang, Silla and Black Water Mohe along the Amur River, attacked Tang and his navy briefly occupied a port on the Shandong Peninsula in 732. Later, a compromise was forged between Tang and Bohai, which resumed tributary mission to Tang. He also sent a mission to Japan in 728 to threaten Silla from the rear. Bohai kept diplomatic and commercial contacts with Japan until the end of the kingdom. Because of its proximity to many powerful states, Bohai became a buffer zone for the region. The third king Mun expanded its territory into the Amur valley in the north and the Liaodong Peninsula in the west. He also established the permanent capital near Lake Jingpo in the south of today's Heilongjiang province around 755. After destroying Bohai in 926, the Khitan established the puppet Dongdan Kingdom, which was soon followed by the annexation by Liao in 936. Bohai aristocrats were moved to Liaoyang but small fragments of the state remained semi-independent. Some Bohai people fled southward to Goryeo, including a son of the last king. Some descendants of the royal family live in Korea, changing their family name to Tae (太). The Jurchen Jin Dynasty favored the Bohai people as well as the Khitans. The fourth, fifth and seventh emperors were mothered by Bohai concubines. The 13th century census of Northern China by the Mongols distinguished Bohai from other ethnic groups such as Goryeo , Khitan and Jurchen. This suggests that the Bohai people still preserved their identity.

Characterization and political interpretation

In North and South Korea, Bohai is regarded as a Korean state and is positioned in the "North-South Period" (with Silla) today, although such a view has had proponents in the past. They emphasize its connection with Goguryeo and minimize that with the Mohe. While South Korean historians think the ruling class was of Goguryeo and the commoners were Mohe, North Korean historians think Bohai ethnography was mostly Goguryeo. The PRC projects the current border to history. It classifies historical events that happened within its present territory as part of its history. Today, Chinese historians consider Bohai as a local government of the Tang, and think it was ruled by the Bohai ethnic group, which was mostly based on the Mohe. They stress the importance of the Bohai-Tang relationship. Russian scholars think of Bohai as an independent Mohe state, with Central Asian and Chinese influence. Japanese scholars also view Bohai as an independent state, likening to Manchukuo for its friendly relationship with Japan. Koreans and traditional Chinese historians believe the founder Dae Joyŏng was of Goguryeo stock. The Old Book of the Tang says that Dae Joyŏng was of [Goguryeo] kind (高麗別種), and the New Book of the Tang states that he is "from the Sumo Mohe of the former realm of Goguryeo." Some modern Chinese historians argue that Sumo Mohe is not a region, but an ethnic non-Korean tribe.

Sovereigns of Bohai/Balhae 698-926

The names in this table are given in McCune-Reischauer romanisation, Hangŭl/Chosŏn’gŭl, Chinese characters and Pinyin. An important source of cultural information on Bohai was discovered at the end of the 20th century at the Ancient Tombs at Longtou Mountain, especially the Mausoleum of Princess Zhenxiao.

Capitals of Balhae Kingdom

- Tongmu Mountain (Hangul : 동모산 now : Dunhua)
- (Hangul : 구국/영승)
- Zhongjing (Hangul : 중경 now :서고성) from 742 - 755
- Shangjing (Hangul : 상경 / 발해진) from 755 - 785
- Dongjing (Hangul : 동경 now : Hunchun) from 785 - 794
- Shangjing (Hangul : 상경 / 발해진) from 794 - 926

External links

- [http://concise.britannica.com/ebc/article?eu=399871 Britannica Concise Encyclopedia article on Balhae/Bohai)] ko:발해 ja:渤海 (国)
-

Rulers of Korea

Korea has been ruled by a number of kingdoms/empires and republics over the last several millennia. Listed below are the rulers and leaders of the major Korean dynasties and states from the beginning of recorded history to the present day.

Notes

Kingdoms/Empires are listed in the order of their fall. Thus, Baekje, Goguryeo, and Silla are listed an order that is the reverse of their traditional order of formation. This list includes only the monarchs' romanized posthumous or temple names and reign dates. The reign dates come from http://www.rootsinfo.co.kr/index_sub02.html (in Korean only), with additional information from Rulers.org and from Nahm (1988). Names have been romanized according to the South Korean Revised Romanization of Korean. McCune-Reischauer romanizations of names may be found at the articles about the individual rulers.

Old Joseon (c.2333 BCE–c.239 BCE)

The mythical founder of Old Joseon was Emperor Wanggeom. The time for the end of Joseon is disputed. Some record records the abdication of last emperor, Emperor Koyulga, in 239 BCE, while other accounts record the date as 1137 BCE. The period of the reign of each emperor is not listed, as neither account currently prevails. According to one account, the dynasty's name was changed to Daebuyeo in 425 BCE. The emperor used the title of Tanje, which literally means emperor under the birch. #Emperor Wanggeom #Emperor Buru #Emperor Gareuk #Emperor Osagu #Emperor Gueul #Emperor Dalmun #Emperor Hanyul #Emperor Usuhan #Emperor Aseul #Emperor Noul #Emperor Dohae #Emperor Ahan #Emperor Holdal #Emperor Gobul #Emperor Daeum #Emperor Wina #Emperor Yeoul #Emperor Dongum #Emperor Gumoso #Emperor Goheul #Emperor Sotae #Emperor Saekbullu #Emperor Aheul #Emperor Yeonna #Emperor Solna #Emperor Churo #Emperor Dumil #Emperor Haemo #Emperor Mahew #Emperor Naehew #Emperor Deungowl #Emperor Chumil #Emperor Kammul #Emperor Orumun #Emperor Sabul #Emperor Maereuk #Emperor Mamul #Emperor Damul #Emperor Duhol #Emperor Dalum #Emperor Eumcha #Emperor Eulwuji #Emperor Mulli #Emperor Kumul #Emperor Yeoru #Emperor Boeul #Emperor Koyeolga

Buyeo (c.239 BCE–494 CE)

Buyeo is believed to have risen from the areas of Joseon in the 2nd to the 3rd centuries BCE. They claimed the inheritance of Joseon, and the rulers continued to use the titles of Tanje or the emperor. According to some accounts, Buyeo was divided into two countries, Bukbuyeo and Dongbuyeo, in 108 BCE. Bukbuyeo was later succeeded by Goguryeo, but Dongbuyeo, ruled by the heirs of Emperor Haemosu, was shattered by Goguryeo in 22 CE. Dongbuyeo declined to meagre existence until 494, when they capitulated to Goguryeo. #Emperor Haemosu (239–195 BCE) #Emperor Morisu (195–170 BCE) #Emperor Gohaesa (170–121 BCE) #Emperor Gowuru (121–86 BCE)

Bukbuyeo (c.108 BCE–c.58 BCE)

The rulers of Bukbuyeo retained the use the title of Tanje, or emperor. #Emperor Godumak (108–60 BCE) #Emperor Gomuseu (60–58 BCE)

Dongbuyeo (c.86 BCE–22 CE)

The rulers of Dongbuyeo submitted to the overlordship of Bukbuyeo in 86 BCE, and thus used the title Wang, which means king. #King Haeburu (86–48 BCE) #King Geumwa (48–7 BCE) #King Daeso (7 BCE–22 CE)

Gaya (Garak) (42-532)

Gaya (also called "Garak") was a minor state (that is, not one of the three major kingdoms) during the Three Kingdoms Period. Gaya was absorbed into Silla in 532. All kings of Gaya bore the Korean title Wang, which means "king". This list represents the Kim Dynasty of Geumgwan Gaya. #King Suro (42–199) #King Geodeung (199–259) #King Mapum (259–291) #King Geojilmi (291–346) #King Isipum (346–407) #King Jwaji (407–421) #King Chwiheui (421–451) #King Jilji (451–492) #King Gyumji (492–521) #King Guhyung (521–532)

Baekje (18 BCE–660 CE)

Baekje was one of the Three Kingdoms of Korea in the 1st millennium CE (along with Goguryeo and Silla), and fell to Silla in 660. All the rulers of Baekje had the Korean title Wang, which means "king". But some declared himself as emperor. #King Onjo (18 BCE–29 CE) #King Daru (29–77) #King Giru (77–128 #King Gaeru (128–166) #King Chogo (166–214) #King Gusu (214–234) #King Saban (234) #King Goi (234–286) #King Chaekgye (286–298) #King Bunseo (298–304) #King Biryu (304–344) #King Gye (344–346) #King Geunchogo (346–375) #King Geungusu (375–384) #King Chimnyu (384–385) #King Jinsa (385–392) #King Asin (392–405) #King Jeonji (405–420) #King Guisin (420–427) #King Biyu (427–454) #King Gaero (454–475) #King Munju (475–477) #King Samgeun (477–479 #King Dongseong (479–501) #King Muryeong (501–523) #King Seong (523–554) #King Wideok (554–598) #King Hye (598–599) #King Beop (599–600) #King Mu (600–641) #King Uija (641–660)

Goguryeo (37 BCE–668 CE)

Goguryeo was one of the Three Kingdoms of Korea in the first millennium CE (along with Baekje and Silla), and fell to Silla and Tang of China in 668. Goguryeo was ruled by the Go Family and was the only one of the three realms that is described as the Empire, its vassals using the title "king". Its rulers had the title of Taewang, which literarily translated means "the greatest of the kings" or "emperor". Here the rulers are all styled emperor, with the era name in bracket when applicable. #Emperor Dongmyeongseong (Damul) (37–19 BCE) (also known as Jumong) #Emperor Yuri (19 BCE–18 CE) #Emperor Daemushin (18–44) #Emperor Minjung (44–48) #Emperor Mobon (48–53) #Emperor Taejo (Ryeungmu) (53–121/146) (also known as Emperor Gukjo) #Emperor Chadae (121/146–165) #Emperor Shindae (165–179) #Emperor Gogukcheon (179–197) #Emperor Sinsang (197–227) #Emperor Dongcheon (227–248) (also known as Emperor Dongyang) #Emperor Jungcheon (248–270) (also known as Emperor Jungyang) #Emperor Seocheon (270–292) (also known as Emperor Seoyang) #Emperor Bongsang (292–300) (also known as Emperor Chagal) #Emperor Micheon (300–331) (also known as Emperor Hoyang) #Emperor Gogukwon (331–371) (also known as Emperor Gukgangsang) #Emperor Sosurim (371–384) #Emperor Gogukyang (384–391) #Emperor Gwanggaeto the Great (Youngrak) (391–413) #Emperor Jangsu (Gunheung) (413–491) #Emperor Munjamyeong (Myungchi) (491–519) #Emperor Anjang (519–531) #Emperor Anwon (531–545) #Emperor Yangwon (545–559) (also known as Emperor Yanggang) #Emperor Pyeongwon (Daeduk) (559–590) (also known as Emperor Pyeonggang) #Emperor Yeongyang (Hongmu) (590–618) (also known as Emperor Pyeongyang) #Emperor Yeongryu (618–642) #Emperor Bojang (Kaehwa) (642–668)

Silla (57 BCE–935 CE)

Silla was one of the Three Dynasties of Korea in the 1st millennium CE, along with Baekje (which it conquered in 660) and Goguryeo (which it conquered in 668). Silla fell in turn to Goryeo in 935. Silla was ruled by the Pak, Seok, and Kim Families. Rulers of Silla had various titles, including Isageum, Maripgan, Wang, and Yeowang, as explained in the list below. For the sake of consistency, all rulers in the list below (except for the first two) are given the titles "King" or "Queen". Like Baekje, some delcared him or herself emperor. #Pak Hyeokgeose (57 BCE–4 CE) #Namhae Chachaung (4–24) #King Yuri (24–57) (Kings Yuri to Heurhae bore the Korean title Isageum, an old word for "ruler") #King Talhae (57–80) #King Pasa (80–112) #King Jima (112–134) #King Ilseong (134–154) #King Adalla (154–184) #King Beolhyu (184–196) #King Naehae (196–230) #King Jobun (230–247) #King Cheomhae (247–261) #King Michu (262–284) #King Yurye (284–298) #King Girim (298–310) #King Heulhae (310–356) #King Naemul (356–402) (Kings Naemul to Soji bore the Korean title Maripgan, an old word for "ruler") #King Silseong (402–417) #King Nulji (417–458) #King Jabi (458–479) #King Soji (479–500) #King Jijeung (500–514) (Kings Jijeung to Gyeongsun bore the title Wang (the modern Korean word for "king"), with the exceptions noted below) #King Beopheung (514–540) #King Jinheung (540–576) #King Jinji (576–579) #

List of state leaders in 769

Africa

America

Asia

Europe

Middle East

List of state leaders in 768

Africa

America

Asia

Europe

Middle East

List of state leaders in 770

Africa

America

Asia

Europe

Middle East

Makuria

Sources

History

Origins

Height

Decline

Economy

Government

Religion

Culture

Rulers

Notes

References

External links

Sa'id I ibn Idris

760

Events

Births

803

Events

Births

Deaths

Copán

Description of the ruins

Pre-Columbian history

List of known Xukpi rulers

Copán in modern times

Further reading

External links

810

Events

Births

Deaths

Bohai

Characterization and political interpretation

Sovereigns of Bohai/Balhae 698-926

Capitals of Balhae Kingdom

See also

External links

Rulers of Korea

Notes

Old Joseon (c.2333 BCE–c.239 BCE)

Buyeo (c.239 BCE–494 CE)

Bukbuyeo (c.108 BCE–c.58 BCE)

Dongbuyeo (c.86 BCE–22 CE)

Gaya (Garak) (42-532)

Baekje (18 BCE–660 CE)

Goguryeo (37 BCE–668 CE)

Silla (57 BCE–935 CE)