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C2IEDM

C2IEDM

C2IEDM, or Command and Control Information Exchange Data Model, is a data model that is managed by the Multilateral Interoperability Programme (MIP). It originated with experts from various NATO partners and from the Partnership for Peace nations. This data model is in the process of being submitted to OMG for consideration as the standard for information exchange. It falls under the shared operational picture exchange service.

External links

- [http://www.mip-site.org/MIP_DMWG.htm MIP site: Data Modelling Working Group]

Data model

A data model is a model that describes in an abstract way how data is represented in a business organization, an information system or a database management system. This term is ambiguously defined to mean: #how data generally is organized, e.g. as described in Database management system. This is sometimes also called "database model" #or how data of a specific business function is organized logically (e.g. the data model of some business)

General Organization of Data

In general the first aspect ("database model") describes the following : # Structure: defines how data are organized (hierarchical, network, relational, object-oriented). # Integrity: provides a language for the definition of rules that restrict which instances of the defined structure are allowed. # Manipulation: provides a language in which updates of the data can be expressed. # Querying: provides a language in which the data can be queried. For example in the relational model all data is represented by mathematical relations (or, to be precise, a slightly generalized version thereof). There exists a general language for specifying constraints (first-order logic), and for manipulations and querying the data the relational algebra, tuple calculus and domain calculus are introduced. Additional information about this topic can also be found in database management system.

Organization of Data in a Specific Application (Domain)

For a specific application tables (objects, relations, ..., the naming conventions depend on the general model) are defined, for example "customer", "order", "item" as well as relations between them ("customer orders items"). If a relational model is used, sets of specific constraints (candidate keys, foreign keys) have to be defined (using the appropriate language as defined for the general model, e.g. SQL).

Tools for Creating a Data model for an Application

While simple data models consisting of few tables or objects can be created "manually" large applications need a more systematic approach. The Entity-Relationship Model method is used to establish a domain specific data model. Other methods like the Functional Data Model and Object Role Modeling (ORM) also describe subsets/aspects of a data model and the application based on it. The Unified Modeling Language (UML) is another method more related to object-oriented data models. Especially the "Object Model" part has a number of parallel representations with the Entity-Relationship Model. Category:Data modeling

NATO

:NATO is also an acronym for the National Association of Theatre Owners. National Association of Theatre Owners National Association of Theatre Owners The North Atlantic Treaty Organisation (NATO), sometimes called North Atlantic Alliance, Atlantic Alliance or the Western Alliance, is an international organisation for defence collaboration established in 1949, in support of the North Atlantic Treaty signed in Washington, D.C., on April 4, 1949. Its headquarters are located in Brussels, Belgium. Its other official name is the French equivalent, l'Organisation du Traité de l'Atlantique du Nord (OTAN).
Purpose
The core of NATO is Article V of the NATO Treaty, which states: :The Parties agree that an armed attack against one or more of them in Europe or North America shall be considered an attack against them all. Consequently they agree that, if such an armed attack occurs, each of them, in exercise of the right of individual or collective self-defence recognised by Article 51 of the Charter of the United Nations, will assist the Party or Parties so attacked by taking forthwith, individually and in concert with the other Parties, such action as it deems necessary, including the use of armed force, to restore and maintain the security of the North Atlantic area. This provision was intended so that if the USSR and its allies launched an attack against any of the NATO members, it would be treated as if it was an attack on all member states. This marked a significant change for the United States, which had traditionally favoured isolationist policies. However, the feared invasion of Western Europe never came. Instead, the provision was invoked for the first time in the treaty's history on September 12, 2001, in response to the September 11 attacks on the United States the day before. NATO Summit 2006 will take place in Latvia.
History

Chronology of events
Latvia
- March 17, 1948: The Benelux countries, France, and the United Kingdom sign the Treaty of Brussels, a precursor to the NATO Agreement.
- April 4, 1949: North Atlantic Treaty is signed in Washington, DC.
- May 14, 1955: Warsaw Pact treaty is signed in Warsaw by the Soviet Union and its satellite states as a formal response to NATO. Both organisations are opposing sides in the Cold War. After the fall of the Iron Curtain in 1989, the Warsaw Pact disintegrates.
- 1966: Charles de Gaulle removes French armed forces from NATO's integrated military command to pursue its own nuclear defence programme. All non-French NATO troops are forced to leave France. This precipitates the relocation of the NATO Headquarters from Paris, France to Brussels, Belgium by October 16, 1967. While the political headquarters are located in Brussels the military headquarters, the Supreme Headquarters Allied Powers Europe (SHAPE), are located just south of Brussels, in the town of Mons.
- July 1, 1968: The Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty opened for signature. NATO argued its nuclear weapons sharing arrangements did not breach the treaty as U.S. forces controlled the weapons until a decision is made to go to war, at which point the treaty would no longer be controlling. Few states knew of the NATO nuclear sharing arrangements at that time, and they were not challenged.
- May 30, 1978 NATO countries define two complementary aims of the Alliance, to maintain security and pursue détente. This is supposed to mean matching defences at the level rendered necessary by the Warsaw Pact's offensive capabilities without spurring a further arms race.
- December 12, 1979 In light of a build-up of Warsaw Pact nuclear capabilities in Europe, ministers approved the deployment of US Cruise and Pershing II theatre nuclear weapons in Europe. The new warheads are also meant to strengthen the western negotiating position in regard to nuclear disarmament.
- May 30, 1982: Spain joins the alliance.
- 1983-84: Responding to the stationing of Warsaw Pact SS-20 medium-range missiles in Europe, NATO deploys modern Pershing II missiles able to reach Moscow within minutes. This action leads to bitter peace movement protests throughout Western Europe.
- May 1984: A NATO manoeuvre codenamed Able Archer, which simulates a NATO response to a Soviet nuclear attack, causes panic in the Kremlin. Soviet leader Yuri Andropov becomes concerned that U.S. President Ronald Reagan intends to launch a real first strike, and places Soviet nuclear forces at full readiness. Only after the collapse of the Soviet Union does it become clear that US intelligence had mistaken real Soviet nervousness for propaganda efforts.
- October 3, 1990: With the reunification of Germany, the former East Germany becomes part of the Federal Republic of Germany and the alliance. This had been agreed in the Two Plus Four Treaty earlier in the year. To secure Soviet approval of united Germany remaining in NATO, it is agreed that there will be no new foreign military bases in the east, and that nuclear weapons will not be permanently stationed there.
- March 31, 1991: The Warsaw Pact comes to an end. It is officially dissolved on July 1, 1991. The Soviet Union collapses in December of the same year.
- February 8, 1994: NATO takes its first military action, shooting down two Bosnian Serb aircraft violating a UN no-fly zone over central Bosnia and Herzegovina. NATO airstrikes the following year help bring the war in Bosnia to an end, resulting in the Dayton Agreement.
- July 8, 1997: Three former communist countries, Hungary, the Czech Republic, and Poland, are invited to join NATO. They join in 1999.
- March 24, 1999: NATO sees its first broad-scale military engagement in the Kosovo War, where it wages an 11-week bombing campaign against what was then the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia, aimed at preventing the alleged ethnic cleansing of Albanians. It ends on June 11, 1999, when Yugoslavian leader Slobodan Milošević agrees to NATO's demands.
- April 1999: At the Washington summit, Germany proposes that NATO adopt a no-first-use nuclear strategy; the proposal is rejected.
- September 12, 2001: NATO provisionally invokes, for the first time in its history, the collective security clause of its charter. Article 5 states that any attack on a member state is considered an attack against the entire alliance. This comes in response to the September 11, 2001 Terrorist Attack against the United States.
- October 5, 2001: NATO confirms the invocation of Article 5, having determined that the attacks of 11 September were eligible under the terms of the North Atlantic Treaty. [http://www.nato.int/docu/update/2001/1001/e1002a.htm]
- November 21, 2002: During the Prague summit, seven countries are invited to start talks in order to join the Alliance: Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania, Slovenia, Slovakia, Bulgaria, and Romania. The invited countries join NATO on March 29, 2004. Further countries express the wish to join the alliance, including Albania, the Republic of Macedonia, and Croatia. The summit also launches the NATO Response Force (NRF).
- February 10, 2003: NATO faces a crisis when France and Belgium veto the procedure of silent approval concerning the timing of protective measures for Turkey in case of a possible war with Iraq. Germany does not use its right to break the procedure but says it supports the veto. Germany
- April 16, 2003: NATO agrees to take command in August of the International Security Assistance Force (ISAF) in Afghanistan. The decision comes at the request of Germany and the Netherlands, the two nations leading ISAF at the time of the agreement. All 19 NATO ambassadors approve it unanimously. The handover of control to NATO takes place on August 11, and marked the first time in NATO's history that it takes charge of a mission outside the north Atlantic area. Canada had originally been slated to take over ISAF by itself on that date.
- June 19, 2003: A major restructuring of the NATO military commands begins as the Headquarters of the Supreme Allied Commander, Atlantic was abolished and a new command, Allied Command Transformation (ACT), was established in Norfolk, Virginia, U.S. and the Supreme Headquarters Allied Powers Europe (SHAPE) became Allied Command Operations (ACO). ACT is responsible for driving transformation (future capabilities) in NATO, whilst ACO is responsible for current operations.
- March 29, 2004: Bulgaria, Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania, Romania, Slovakia, and Slovenia join NATO.
Member states
2004 Greece and Turkey joined the initial 12 members of the organisation in February 1952. Germany joined as West Germany in 1955 and German reunification on October 3, 1990 extended the membership to the areas of the former German Democratic Republic which became part of the Federal Republic of Germany. Spain was admitted on May 30 1982, and the former Warsaw Pact countries of Poland, Hungary and the Czech Republic made history by becoming members on March 12 1999. France is a member of NATO, but it withdrew from the integrated military command in 1966. Following this decision, the NATO headquarters was moved from Paris to Brussels. Iceland, the sole member of NATO which does not have its own military force (the Icelandic Defense Force being the United States Military contingent permanently stationed in Iceland), joined on the condition that they would not be expected to establish one. Greece withdrew its forces from NATO’s military command structure from 1974 to 1980 as a result of Greco-Turkish tensions following the 1974 Cyprus dispute. The former Warsaw Pact countries of Slovakia, Slovenia, Bulgaria, Romania, Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania officially acceded to NATO on March 29 2004. They attended their first NATO meeting in April 2004. Albania, Croatia, and the F.Y.R. of Macedonia are the three countries currently in the NATO MAP (Membership Action Programme); they are likely to join NATO in the future.
Founding members (April 4, 1949)
2004
-
-
-
- , withdraws in 1966 from the integrated command and all foreign NATO forces leave France
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
States that joined during the Cold War

- (February 18, 1952)
- (February 18, 1952)
- (May 9, 1955 as West Germany)
- (May 30,1982)
Former Eastern Bloc states that joined after the Cold War
1999:
- (May 27, 1999)
- (May 27, 1999)
- (May 27, 1999) 2004:
- (March 29, 2004)
- (March 29, 2004)
- (March 29, 2004)
- (March 29, 2004)
- (March 29, 2004)
- (March 29, 2004)
- (March 29, 2004)
Non-member states

Partner countries
Main article: Euro-Atlantic Partnership Council The Euro-Atlantic Partnership Council consists of 46 member countries: the 26 NATO members and 20 partner countries:
- 4 non-NATO EU members: :
- :
- :
- :
-
- 12 CIS members: :
- :
- :
- :
- :
- :
- :
- :
- :
- :
- :
- :
-
- 2 non-NATO ex-Yugoslavia members: :
- :
-
- 2 other: :
- :
-

NATO-Russia Council

Main article: NATO-Russia Council NATO and Russia made a reciprocal commitment in 1997 "to work together to build a stable, secure and undivided continent on the basis of partnership and common interest." In May 2002, this commitment was strengthened with the establishment of the NATO-Russia Council, which brings together the NATO members and Russia. The purpose of this council is to identify and pursue opportunities for joint action with the 27 (26+1) participants as equal partners.

Structures

Political structure

Organisational structure

Like any alliance, NATO is ultimately governed by its 26 member states. However, the North Atlantic Treaty, and other agreements, outline how decisions are to be made within NATO. Each of the 26 members sends a delegation or mission to NATO's headquarters in Brussels, Belgium. The senior permanent member of each delegation is known as the Permanent Representative and is generally a senior civil servant or an experienced ambassador (and holding that diplomatic rank). Together the Permanent Members form the North Atlantic Council (NAC), a body which meets together at least once a week and has effective political authority and powers of decision in NATO. From time to time the Council also meets at higher levels involving Foreign Ministers, Defence Ministers or Heads of Government and it is at these meetings that major decisions regarding NATO's policies are generally taken. However, it is worth noting that the Council has the same authority and powers of decision-making, and its decisions have the same status and validity, at whatever level it meets. The meetings of the North Atlantic Council are chaired by the Secretary General of NATO and, when decisions have to be made, action is agreed upon on the basis of unanimity and common accord. There is no voting or decision by majority. Each nation represented at the Council table or on any of its subordinate committees retains complete sovereignty and responsibility for its own decisions.
- The second pivotal member of each country's delegation is the Military Representative, a senior officer from each country's armed forces. Together the Military Representatives form the Military Committee, a body responsible for recommending to NATO's political authorities those measures considered necessary for the common defence of the NATO area. Its principal role is to provide direction and advice on military policy and strategy. It provides guidance on military matters to the NATO Strategic Commanders, whose representatives attend its meetings, and is responsible for the overall conduct of the military affairs of the Alliance under the authority of the Council. Like the council, from time to time the Military Committee also meets at a higher level, namely at the level of Chiefs of Defence, the most senior military officer in each nations armed forces.
- In addition to this strictly internal structure, there is a number of institutionalised cooperations and consultations in a spirit of partnership.
- Since 1994, the Mediterranean Dialogue is a forum with pro-western Arab countries (Egypt, Algeria, Jordan, Morocco, Mauritania and Tunisia) and Israel.
- Partnership for Peace The NATO Parliamentary Assembly is made up of legislators from the member countries of the North Atlantic Alliance as well as 13 associate members[http://www.nato-pa.int/Default.asp?SHORTCUT=1].

Secretaries General

# Lord Ismay (United Kingdom): April 4, 1952, to May 16, 1957 # Paul-Henri Spaak (Belgium): May 16, 1957, to April 21, 1961 # Dirk Stikker (Netherlands): April 21, 1961, to August 1, 1964 # Manlio Brosio (Italy): August 1, 1964, to October 1, 1971 # Joseph Luns (Netherlands): October 1, 1971, to June 25, 1984 # Lord Carrington (United Kingdom): June 25, 1984, to July 1, 1988 # Manfred Wörner (Germany): July 1, 1988, to August 13, 1994 # Sergio Balanzino (Italy, acting): August 13, 1994, to October 17, 1994 # Willy Claes (Belgium): October 17, 1994, to October 20, 1995 # Sergio Balanzino (Italy, acting): October 20, 1995, to December 5, 1995 # Javier Solana (Spain): December 5, 1995, to October 6, 1999 # Lord Robertson of Port Ellen (United Kingdom): October 14, 1999, to January 1, 2004 # Jaap de Hoop Scheffer (Netherlands): January 1, 2004, to present

Military structure

NATO's military operations are directed by two Strategic Commanders, both senior American Officers assisted by a staff drawn from across NATO. The Strategic Commanders are responsible to the Military Committee for the overall direction and conduct of all Alliance military matters within their areas of command. Before 2003 the Strategic Commanders were the Supreme Allied Commander Europe (SACEUR) and the Supreme Allied Commander Atlantic (SACLANT) but the current arrangement is to separate command responsibility between Allied Command Transformation (ACT), responsible for transformation and training of NATO forces, and Allied Command Operations, responsible for NATO operations world wide. The commander of Allied Command Operations retained the title "Supreme Allied Commander Europe (SACEUR)", and is based in the Supreme Headquarters Allied Powers Europe located at Casteau, north of the Belgian city of Mons. This is about 80 km (50 miles) south of NATO's political headquarters in Brussels. Allied Command Transformation (ACT) is based in the former Allied Command Atlantic headquarters in Norfolk, Virginia, USA. NATO operates a fleet of E-3 Sentry AWACS airborne radar aircraft based out of Geilenkirchen Air Base in Germany.

Debate about its future

The future of NATO is currently under debate. The main issues are:
- The necessity. The crumbling of the main "enemy of the west" in Eastern Europe removed for many observers the necessity of a collective defence organisation. The debate about the necessity of NATO has increased due to dissension between members about the American led invasion of Iraq, makes some wonder (largely in North America) whether NATO has not become obsolete. The presumed threat of terrorism could give the institution a new life, but some think also that fighting terrorists needs a completely different political and military organisation, as well as completely different weapon systems to those on which NATO was built.
- The benefits for the US. In the US, some voices emphasis the discrepancy in military spending between the USA and European members. While the USA has the highest military spending in the world, European nations have decreased their budgets significantly after the end of the Cold War. The gap in military capabilities is thus increasing, which raises questions about what the USA gains from membership. The lack of European capabilities was highlighted during the Kosovo crisis. Former NATO-secretary Lord Robertson criticized the European members in 1999, pointing out European nations must commit substantially more funds to defence just to meet their existing commitments to NATO. [http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/uk_politics/546307.stm] However, this commitment has not been fulfilled in the following years, and it is expected that this will remain to be the case for the forseeable future. That the US wants to continue to benefit from military ties with Europe (though not necessarily through NATO) can be seen by the fact that the US has had talks with Poland and other European countries over the possibility of setting up a European base to intercept long-range missiles, as part of the American NMD program. This program is designed to shoot down long-range missiles fired at North America. A European base would also protect some European nations (as well as the US). [http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/europe/4445284.stm]
- An obstacle to European integration. Many argue that NATO is in conflict with the prospects of deeper European integration in the fields of foreign policy and security within the framework of the EU institutions. Some advocates for a strong EU Common Foreign and Security Policy (CFSP) would like to see NATO dismantled and a common defence and foreign policy created within the existing EU institutions. In November 2004, after the re-election of United States President George W. Bush, the Norwegian Prime Minister Kjell Magne Bondevik publicly discussed whether Norway would benefit from strengthening her defence relations with the EU. Many Norwegian political analysts consider NATO to be a "politically dead organisation". So do several pundits and political leaders in other member nations. These attitudes will of necessity be reflected in future discussions of NATO expansion.

Signatories of Partnership for Peace Framework Document

The current members are:
- Albania
- Armenia
- Austria
- Azerbaijan
- Belarus
- Croatia
- Finland
- Georgia
- Ireland
- Kazakhstan
- Kyrgyzstan
- Republic of Macedonia
- Moldova
- Russia
- Sweden
- Switzerland
- Tajikistan
- Turkmenistan
- Ukraine
- Uzbekistan The following countries were signatories but became full NATO members on 12 March 1999:
- Czech Republic
- Hungary
- Poland The following countries were signatories but became full NATO members on 29 March 2004:
- Bulgaria
- Estonia
- Latvia
- Lithuania
- Romania
- Slovakia
- Slovenia

External links

- [http://www.nato.int/issues/pfp/ NATO Issues: The Partnership for Peace]
- [http://www.nato.int/pfp/sig-cntr.htm Signatures of Partnership for Peace Framework Document]
- [http://www.pimswiki.org Partnership for Peace Information Management System (PIMS)] Category:Peace Category:NATO

Information

:"Info" redirects here; for other uses, see .info and NFO Information is a word which has many different meanings in everyday usage and in specialized contexts, but as a rule, the concept is closely related to others such as data, instruction, knowledge, meaning, communication, representation, and mental stimulus. Many people speak of the advent of the information age, the information society, and information technologies, and even though information science and computer science are often in the spotlight, the word "information" is often used without careful consideration of the various meanings it has acquired.

Information as a message

Information is a message, something to be communicated from the sender to the receiver. If information is viewed merely as a message, it does not have to be accurate. It may be a truth or a lie, or just a sound of a kiss. Strangely it may even be a disruptive noise used to inhibit the flow of communication and create misunderstanding. This model assumes a sender and a receiver, and does not attach any significance to the idea that information is something that can be extracted from an environment, e.g., through observation or measurement. Information in this sense is simply any message the sender chooses to create.

Measuring information

The view of information as a message came into prominence with the publication in 1948 of an influential paper by Claude Shannon, "A Mathematical Theory of Communication." This paper provides the foundations of information theory and endows the word information not only with a technical meaning but also a measure. If the sending device is equally likely to send any one of a set of

N

messages, then the preferred measure of "the information produced when one message is chosen from the set" is the base two logarithm of

N

(This measure is called self-information). In this paper, Shannon continues: :The choice of a logarithmic base corresponds to the choice of a unit for measuring information. If the base 2 is used the resulting units may be called binary digits, or more briefly bits, a word suggested by J. W. Tukey. A device with two stable positions, such as a relay or a flip-flop circuit, can store one bit of information. N such devices can store N bits ... [The Bell System Technical Journal, Vol. 27, p. 379, (July 1948).] A complementary way of measuring information is provided by Algorithmic information theory. In brief, this measures the information content of a list of symbols based on how predictable they are, or more specifically how easy it is to generate the list. The sequence below would have a very low algorithmic information measurement since it is a very predictable pattern, and as the pattern continues the measurement would not change. Shannon information would give the same information measurement for each symbol, since they are statistically random, and each new symbol would increase the measurement. : 123456789101112131415161718192021 Also see: lexicographic information cost

Information as a pattern

Information is any represented pattern. This view assumes neither accuracy nor directly communicating parties, but instead assumes a separation between an object and its representation, as well as the involvement of someone capable of understanding this relationship. This view seems therefore to require a conscious mind. Consider the following example: economic statistics represent an economy, however inaccurately. What are commonly referred to as data in computing, statistics, and other fields, are forms of information in this sense. The electro-magnetic patterns in a computer network and connected devices are related to something other than the pattern itself, such as text to be displayed and keyboard input. Signals, signs, and symbols are also in this category. On the other hand, according to semiotics, data is symbols with certain syntax and information is data with a certain semantic. Painting and drawing contain information to the extent that they represent something such as an assortment of objects on a table, a profile, or a landscape. In other words, when a pattern of something is transposed to a pattern of something else, the latter is information. This type of information still assumes some involvement of conscious mind, of either the entity constructing the representation, or the entity interpreting it. When one constructs a representation of an object, one can selectively extract from the object (sampling) or use a system of signs to replace (encoding), or both. The sampling and encoding result in representation. An example of the former is a "sample" of a product; an example of the latter is "verbal description" of a product. Both contain information of the product, however inaccurate. When one interprets representation, one can predict a broader pattern from a limited number of observations (inference) or understand the relation between patterns of two different things (decoding). One example of the former is to sip a soup to know if it is spoiled; an example of the latter is examining footprints to determine the animal and its condition. In both cases, information sources are not constructed or presented by some "sender" of information. To repeat, information in this sense does not assume direct communication, but it assumes involvement of some conscious mind. Regardless, information is dependent upon, but usually unrelated to and separate from, the medium or media used to express it. In other words, the position of a theoretical series of bits, or even the output once interpreted by a computer or similar device, is unimportant, except when someone or something is present to interpret the information. Therefore, a quantity of information is totally distinct from its medium.

Information as sensory input

Often information is viewed as a type of input to an organism or designed device. Inputs are of two kinds. Some inputs are important to the function of the organism (for example, food) or device (energy) by themselves. In his book Sensory Ecology, Dusenbery called these causal inputs. Other inputs (information) are important only because they are associated with causal inputs and can be used to predict the occurrence of a causal input at a later time (and perhaps another place). Some information is important because of association with other information but eventually there must be a connection to a causal input. In practice, information is usually carried by weak stimuli that must be detected by specialized sensory systems and amplified by energy inputs before they can be functional to the organism or device. For example, light is often a causal input to plants but provides information to animals. The colored light reflected from a flower is too weak to do much photosynthetic work but the visual system of the bee detects it and the bee's nervous system uses the information to guide the bee to the flower, where the bee often finds nectar or pollen, which are causal inputs, serving a nutritional function. Information is any type of sensory input. When an organism with a nervous system receives an input, it transforms the input into an electrical signal. This is regarded information by some. The idea of representation is still relevant, but in a slightly different manner. That is, while abstract painting does not represent anything concretely, when the viewer sees the painting, it is nevertheless transformed into electrical signals that create a representation of the painting. Defined this way, information does not have to be related to truth, communication, or representation of an object. Entertainment in general is not intended to be informative. Music, the performing arts, amusement parks, works of fiction and so on are thus forms of information in this sense, but they are not forms of information according to the previous definitions above. Consider another example: food supplies both nutrition and taste for those who eat it. If information is equated to sensory input, then nutrition is not information but taste is.

Information as an influence which leads to a transformation

Information is any type of pattern that influences the formation or transformation of other patterns. In this sense, there is no need for a conscious mind to perceive, much less appreciate, the pattern. Consider, for example, DNA. The sequence of nucleotides is a pattern that influences the formation and development of an organism without any need for a conscious mind. Systems theory at times seems to refer to information in this sense, assuming information does not necessarily involve any conscious mind, and patterns circulating (due to feedback) in the system can be called information. In other words, it can be said that information in this sense is something potentially perceived as representation, though not created or presented for that purpose. When Marshall McLuhan speaks of media and their effects on human cultures, he refers to the structure of artifacts that in turn shape our behaviors and mindsets. Also, pheromones are often said to be "information" in this sense. In 2003, J. D. Bekenstein claimed there is a growing trend in physics to define the physical world as being made of information itself (and thus information is defined in this way). See the section below on information as a property in physics. (Also see Gregory Bateson.)

Information as a property in physics

Main article: Physical information Information has a well defined meaning in physics. Examples of this include the phenomenon of quantum entanglement where particles can interact without reference to their separation or the speed of light. Information itself cannot travel faster than light even if the information is transmitted indirectly. This could lead to the fact that all attempts at physically observing a particle with an "entangled" relationship to another are slowed down, even though the particles not connected in any other way other than by the information they carry. Another link is demonstrated by the Maxwell's demon thought experiment. In this experiment, a direct relationship between information and another physical property, entropy, is demonstrated. A consequence is that it is impossible to destroy information without increasing the entropy of a system; in practical terms this often means generating heat. Thus, in the study of logic gates, the theoretical lower bound of thermal energy released by an AND gate is more than for the NOT gate (because information is destroyed in an AND gate and simply converted in an NOT gate). Physical information is of particular importance in the theory of quantum computers.

Etymology

According to the Oxford English Dictionary, the earliest historical meaning of the word information in English was the act of informing, or giving form or shape to the mind, as in education, instruction, or training. A quote from 1387: "Five books come down from heaven for information of mankind." It was also used for an item of training, e.g. a particular instruction. "Melibee had heard the great skills and reasons of Dame Prudence, and her wise informations and techniques." (1386) The English word was apparently derived by adding the common "noun of action" ending "-ation" (descended through French from Latin "-tio") to the earlier verb to inform, in the sense of to give form to the mind, to discipline, instruct, teach: "Men so wise should go and inform their kings." (1330) Inform itself comes (via French) from the Latin verb informare, to give form to, to form an idea of. Furthermore, Latin itself already even contained the word informatio meaning concept or idea, but the extent to which this may have influenced the development of the word information in English is unclear. As a final note, the ancient Greek word for form was eidos, and this word was famously used in a technical philosophical sense by Plato (and later Aristotle) to denote the ideal identity or essence of something (see The Forms).

References

- Bekenstein, Jacob D. (2003, August). Information in the holographic universe. Scientific American. Retrieved from http://www.referencenter.com

External links

- [http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/information-semantic/ Semantic Conceptions of Information] Review by Luciano Floridi for the Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy
- [http://pespmc1.vub.ac.be/ASC/NEGENTROPY.html Principia Cybernetica entry on negentropy]
- [http://www.princeton.edu/~pear/IU.pdf Information & Uncertainty in Remote Perception Research]
- [http://www.princeton.edu/~pear/JahnATpages.pdf Information, Consciousness & Health] Category:Communication Category:Cybernetics Category:Information technology
- ko:정보 ja:情報 simple:Information

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Rôdeur

Présentation

Les Rôdeurs sont connus pour leur capacité à se servir de l'environnement afin de s'en sortir. Les rituels de la nature qu'ils exécutent leur permettent de manipuler l'environnement pour entraver leurs ennemis, ou d'utiliser le pouvoir de la nature pour soigner et aider leurs alliés. Ils excellent dans l'art du combat à distance, l'arc étant leur arme de prédilection, et sont particulièrement redoutables lorsqu'ils sont postés en hauteur, comme sur des ponts ou des falaises. Ils sont les seuls à pouvoir charmer les animaux, qui les suivent tout au long de

Chi Bi
Chi Bi est le lieu de l'une des plus importantes batailles de l'Ere des Trois Royaumes. Elle vit s'afronter les forces du Wei, menées par Cao Cao et celles conjointes du Shu et du Wu. Grâce aux tactiques de Zhou You et Zhuge Liang, les Forces Alliées réussirent à mettr

Paul Jacques Malouin
Paul Jacques Malouin (1701-1777), médecin et savant. Originaire de Caen, il est notamment un ami de Voltaire et l'un des rédacteurs des articles relatifs à la chimie dans l'Encyclopédie. Il a aussi laissé des travaux moins connus sur les

C2IEDM

External links

Data model

General Organization of Data

Organization of Data in a Specific Application (Domain)

Tools for Creating a Data model for an Application

See also

NATO

Purpose

History

Chronology of events

Member states

Founding members (April 4, 1949)

States that joined during the Cold War

Former Eastern Bloc states that joined after the Cold War

Non-member states

Partner countries

NATO-Russia Council

Structures

Political structure

Organisational structure

Secretaries General

Military structure

Debate about its future

See also

Notes

See also

External links

Partnership for Peace

Signatories of Partnership for Peace Framework Document

External links

Information

Information as a message

Measuring information

Information as a pattern

Information as sensory input

Information as an influence which leads to a transformation

Information as a property in physics

Etymology

References

See also

External links

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L'auteur

L'Intrigue

Présentation